Introduction

The question of who owns the land of Israel is difficult because it touches history, law, memory, and faith at the same time. Many readers start the story in the twentieth century, yet the roots reach back through the Ottoman centuries and into Scripture. This article offers context for the present, explains why the debate is not simple, and shows that there are coherent reasons for a Jewish claim even apart from the Bible. It also presents a Christian reading that sees the modern return as consistent with the promises of God.

Life Under the Ottoman Empire

For centuries the land was part of the Ottoman Empire, from 1517 to 1917 in this region. The sultans ruled as Sunni Muslim sovereigns and later claimed the title of caliph after gaining control of the holy cities. Jews and Christians were recognized as protected communities, yet they were not civic equals. They paid special taxes, faced limits on advancement, and depended on the goodwill of local authorities.

Several reforms affected land and citizenship. The Ottoman Land Code of 1858 required land registration, creating both opportunity and tension for farmers and merchants. Many historians describe the late Ottoman period before 1913 as one of workable coexistence among Jews, Muslims, and Christians, but it was not without trouble. Earlier centuries record outbreaks of violence against Jewish communities during wars and revolts, such as the attacks in Hebron and Safed in 1517, the Safed riots of 1834, and the Damascus Affair in 1840. These events remind us that peace in that era could be fragile.

From Communal Coexistence to National Claims

In the late nineteenth century, nationalism reshaped the Middle East. Ideas of peoplehood and self rule began to replace older loyalties to empire and local community. Jewish thinkers and organizers sought a national home after long periods of persecution and exile. Arab leaders and families, long established in the same region, watched these developments with concern, especially as Jewish immigration and legal land purchases increased.

In Jerusalem there were more Jews than Christians or Muslims in the years leading into the Great War, yet the Jewish community still lacked political power. When immigration rose and the demographic balance shifted, many Arabs feared that their influence would diminish. The older arrangement of religious communities under imperial oversight was giving way to rival national movements that sought sovereignty.

Two major immigration waves shaped this transition. The First Aliyah ran from 1882 to 1903. The Second Aliyah ran from 1904 to 1914. Jewish institutions and private families purchased land lawfully, including large tracts known as the Sursock Purchases in the Jezreel Valley. In 1892 the Ottoman government announced restrictions on land sales to Jews. That step reflected the growing tension between imperial authority and Jewish aspirations.

When the Ottoman Empire collapsed in 1917, Britain assumed control under the League of Nations Mandate. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 supported a national home for the Jewish people and fueled Arab fears of displacement. Riots in Jerusalem in 1920 and in Jaffa in 1921 marked the beginning of the modern Arab and Jewish conflict that continued through the Mandate period.

Why the Question Is Hard

Each side brings the following claims.

1. Religious claims. The land is sacred for Jews, Christians, and Muslims.
2. Historical claims. Jews point to ancient presence and continuous attachment. Arabs point to continuous residence and community under Islamic rule.
3. Legal claims. Jews bought land under Ottoman and British law. Arabs were the long established public and citizens of the empire with social expectations.
4. Moral claims. Both peoples have known suffering and displacement.

When these layers of religion, history, law, and morality overlap, the question of ownership cannot be answered by politics alone.

A Secular Case for a Jewish Claim

1. Continuous presence. Jewish communities remained in Jerusalem, Hebron, Safed, and Tiberias across the centuries.
2. Legal acquisition. From the late nineteenth century through the Mandate years, Jewish individuals and institutions purchased land lawfully. By 1948 Jews legally owned a measurable share of Mandatory Palestine’s land, even if much of the territory was still held by others.
3. National self determination. The League of Nations Mandate for Palestine in 1922 and the United Nations Partition Plan in 1947 recognized a path to Jewish statehood.
4. Historical sovereignty. Before 1948 there had not been an independent Arab state in that territory since antiquity. The land had been administered by empires.

These points form a consistent historical and legal argument for the Jewish claim, while also recognizing that the Arab population has deep ties to the area.

A Christian Reading of Return Beyond Babylon

Some readers argue that biblical prophecies of return apply only to the Babylonian exile. Several passages speak more broadly and describe a gathering from many lands.

“In that day the Lord will reach out his hand a second time to reclaim the surviving remnant of his people from Assyria, from Lower Egypt, from Upper Egypt, from Cush, from Elam, from Babylonia, from Hamath and from the islands of the Mediterranean. He will raise a banner for the nations and gather the exiles of Israel; he will assemble the scattered people of Judah from the four quarters of the earth.”
Isaiah 11:11–12 (NIV)

“For I will take you out of the nations; I will gather you from all the countries and bring you back into your own land.”
Ezekiel 36:24 (NIV)

“This is what the Sovereign Lord says: I will take the Israelites out of the nations where they have gone. I will gather them from all around and bring them back into your own land. I will make them one nation in the land, on the mountains of Israel. There will be one king over all of them and they will never again be two nations or be divided into two kingdoms.”
Ezekiel 37:21–22 (NIV)

“Hear the word of the Lord, you nations; proclaim it in distant coastlands: ‘He who scattered Israel will gather them and will watch over his flock like a shepherd.’”
Jeremiah 31:10 (NIV)

“I will bring my people Israel back from exile. They will rebuild the ruined cities and live in them. They will plant vineyards and drink their wine; they will make gardens and eat their fruit. I will plant Israel in their own land, never again to be uprooted from the land I have given them,” says the Lord your God.
Amos 9:14–15 (NIV)

These passages describe a restoration from many nations, not only from Babylon. From a Christian perspective the rebirth of Israel in 1948 aligns with this biblical vision of return and restoration.

Why the Dispute Persists

The geography is intimate while the weight of history is immense. Jews and Arabs live interwoven lives in overlapping sacred spaces. Political agreements can define borders, but only honesty about history can heal wounds. A lasting peace must honor both the ancient and legal connection of the Jewish people and the local and human experience of the Palestinian people.

Conclusion

The land question remains difficult because it combines centuries of history, empire, and identity with theology and prophecy. Prior to 1913 many historians describe stretches of coexistence, but the record of unequal status and periodic violence shows that peace was fragile. With the rise of nationalism, the conflict transformed into competing claims of sovereignty. From a secular angle the Jewish claim rests on history, law, and self determination. From a Christian angle the prophetic vision of return from the nations points toward God’s covenant faithfulness.

The story of Israel reminds us that promises endure, and so does responsibility. True peace will require truth, humility, and the courage to see both justice and mercy in the same land.

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Sources & Further Reading

Primary Historical Sources and Data

• Ottoman Land Code of 1858 (overview): https://www.beki.org/dvartorah/landlaw/
• League of Nations Mandate for Palestine, 1922: https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp
• Balfour Declaration, 1917 (UK National Archives): https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/balfour-declaration/
• UN Partition Plan, Resolution 181 (1947): https://www.un.org/unispal/document/auto-insert-184391/
• First Aliyah, 1882 to 1903 (Jewish Virtual Library): https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-first-aliyah-1882-1903
• Sursock Purchases in Palestine: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sursock_Purchases
• Jewish land purchase in Ottoman and Mandate Palestine: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_land_purchase_in_Palestine

Secondary and Scholarly Works

• Bernard Lewis, The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years (Touchstone, 1997).
• Martin Gilbert, Israel: A History (HarperCollins, 2008).
• Howard M. Sachar, A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time (Knopf, 2013).
• Anita Shapira, Israel: A History (Brandeis University Press, 2012).

Biblical References (NIV)

Isaiah 11:11–12; Ezekiel 36:24; Ezekiel 37:21–22; Jeremiah 31:10; Amos 9:14–15.